“Knowledge” has several meanings for its use with student learning! A definition of “Knowledge” is traditionally considered information to help reform science education.  It refers to information that can be used to indicate what others have learned.   

A search of five dictionaries has yielded several examples of the meaning for the term “Knowledge.” Some include recognizing facts and truths from study or investigations.  Another indicated “familiarity” one has with a subject, for example, language or branch for learning. Another dictionary indicates it is the perception of fact or truth.  Another states it is practical understandings of an art or a skill. Still another states it is the sum of what is known, including facts accumulated by mankind over the course of time. Yet, these definitions do not include specific reform efforts resulting in teaching science in K-12 classrooms. 

Knowledge is also referred to as cognitive or intellective mental components acquired and retained by study and experience. But, none of these definitions reveal the changes needed in teaching that are central to 2016 discussions including those recently offered by the New York Times (November 22, 2015).  There it was asserted the biggest problem in education is having 50 states, 50 standards, and 50 ideas for testing related to learning.  How do we really know what students are learning?  How well have they learned?  What do students really “know” about the information comprising the meaning of science content or from the explorations of nature encountered in their lives? Assessing students’ knowledge requires students to communicate what they have learned to provide evidence of their understanding.   This occurs when students construct explanations for observed phenomena, judge the merits of a science based argument, or use mathematics and computational thinking to describe and represent relationships and use these relationships to make predictions based upon evidence.

Science learning for some students is difficult to achieve. Most educators derive great satisfaction in thinking they are helping students learn the what and that of science. However, this approach neglects the real challenges. Perhaps the focus should instead be on the how and why of science. Few recognize the measurements for learning if students are only asked to repeat and recite what is included in science classes and textbooks. Standardized tests may not measure learning in ways needed to change teaching.  Some educators insist learning can be demonstrated by test scores which merely identify information students must remember and recite!

Science needs to be a “real” and “personal” learning experience.  If we want students to learn and be successful, we must not treat all students alike; we should not just present information from lectures and textbooks nor just ask students to recite information from memory. We should not have students simply compete to be “number one.” Changes need to be made if we expect teaching to be successful. As science educators, we need to teach students to think like scientists, not memorize facts.

There are few who recognize the needed changes that result in correcting wrong explanations 50 years later. Few even consider most textbooks are out-of-date. One research study conducted by the University of Iowa Chemistry Department head identified over 100 content errors found in textbooks being used.

Perhaps we need to avoid encouraging students to “know” definitions and terms included in the curriculum provided for students from states and districts which often assess without attention to how student knowledge is connected and organized around core science concepts.  We need to identify “knowledge” and how it can be used to indicate successful learning as well as illustrating the power of questioning, use of questions, evidence for changes, and the need for continued questioning. 

Learning remains central to science and other courses in K-16 education. It is not something needed to help some students become “number one” in reciting what they read or what teachers say. It is not merely recalling information found in textbooks and teacher directives. As Nobel Laureate, Herbert Simon stated, “the meaning of “knowing” has shifted from being able to remember and repeat information to being able to find and apply it. Students need more active learning that provide indications of useful knowledge appropriate for learners of ALL ages. Students need to construct their own explanations and designs for solutions of problems which they have identified themselves.

There is little concern for accomplishing changes needed that indicate what humans really “know.”  What information is central to what is taught about concepts to be learned? Knowledge is often used as a “term” to illustrate what students are expected to learn. But, what is accomplished as a result of using the term? What is it? How is “knowledge” used to get all students to “do” science and for using it in their lives? Science must be seen as a way of learning and knowing and not a body of largely unrelated facts.

Co-authors

Robert E. Yager

Professor of Science Education

University of Iowa

Kenneth L. Huff

Science and Math Teacher

Williamsville Central School District

I struggle with getting my biology students to prepare for assessments. What are your thoughts?  — J., Arizona

This is not an uncommon problem and J. was able to provide some additional details:

“I give them study ‘helps’ that outline the concepts to be tested and extra points if they complete them. I do flashcards each day with the vocabulary. I give them a daily study tidbit—it might be rereading a section or highlighting and annotating their notes. I also use games such as Jeopardy and online tools such as Quizlet  and Kahoot. I have even developed an online site where I can electronically host study sessions with students prior to a test. But they still seem unprepared.”

It sounds like you do a lot of work for the students: creating study guides, hosting review sessions, and designing vocabulary games. Perhaps students become dependent on teachers for these materials and don’t realize what they could or should do on their own. (I even had students who were absent on the day we reviewed ask whether they had to take the test!) I suspect many students, even in high school, are not sure how to study or review. So you make a key point when you asked about ways for students to help themselves prepare for assessments.

Review games can be helpful, assuming students understand their purpose and relate their performance in the game to their learning. These games may be fine for vocabulary and factual knowledge, but I wonder about their value in preparing for higher-order assessments.

Rather than, or in addition to, a review at the end of the unit, try spacing formative assessments throughout so that students can monitor what they are learning. Several teachers on the NSTA e-mail lists and forums have described their use of practice quizzes as a preview of the types of tasks on an assessment:

• —I give students a single page review sheet. Students answer what they can and then collaborate on responses to the remaining questions, while I circulate around the room to observe the students at work. We then regroup and review. Students who volunteer the correct response get extra credit for that question. Students have a record of the questions they struggled with and can review again before the test. The extra credit has a motivational impact on student effort.

• —I use Quia to create practice quizzes. After every test I share the average scores for students who did and did not complete the practice quizzes. There is usually a 10% difference (not surprisingly). It shows students something concrete they can do to improve. To them studying is sitting down and reading the notes; practice quizzes force them into a more focused review.

• —I recently [began] giving five extra points on their test only if they had done a quiz that I put online three separate times. I wanted them to study at least three days on their own. They had to complete the quiz each time and could not have done all three in one day. My objective was to get them to not study just the one night before and to get them to develop a more patterned form of studying.

What worked for my high school and middle school students was having them create an index card study guide. Students wrote whatever they thought was important on a 4×6 card. The students soon realized that they had to actually review their notes to create the card. Very few of my test items required students to recall information, and by having some information available to them during the test, the students’ responses to open-ended questions were much improved. They were not allowed to share their cards during the assessment, and I collected the cards with the test papers so that students could not give them to others. 

I discovered that looking at the cards gave me some feedback on what the students considered important. The students attached the cards to their notebooks for future reference and review.

When creating these cards, students actually engaged in some higher-level thinking—determining what they knew, what they don’t know, and what they thought was important, as well as prioritizing information to fit on the card. Yes, there were students who did not take advantage of the opportunity. But I had a student who said, “You sly dog! I spent more time creating the card than I would just studying by paging through my notes—and I did well on the test!”