During the past few years, this blog has addressed several questions about formative assessments. These just-in-time assessments embedded in instruction help a teacher understand what students are learning, identify misconceptions, and adjust instruction as needed. These assessments are an integral part of instruction, not an add-on or special event. These informal (and often ungraded) assessments also allow students to practice and reflect on their learning.

Here’s a quick look back at some of my favorite questions (and answers):

Formative assessments: real-time responses   My principal is talking to us about using “formative” assessments. But does this mean taking time away from instruction for more tests? When will I have time to teach?

Formative assessments   I’m looking for suggestions for formative assessments.  Do you have some unique ideas to assess students quickly and adjust instruction accordingly?

Testing blues   I’m feeling really frustrated right now. I thought the students were following along in my first unit, but when I gave the test, I was really disappointed in the results. What can I do differently in the next unit?

What do students already know?   Last year, I started giving pretests at the beginning of each unit. The students were upset because they didn’t know many of the answers, even though I explained I didn’t expect them to know everything and the pretest wouldn’t count as a grade. Are there other ways to find out what students know about a topic?

Assessment items   I’m interested in finding some science assessments to supplement the state tests at the high school level. I’m especially looking for ones that will help me understand students’ thinking.

Photo: http://www.flickr.com/photos/fontplaydotcom/504443770/

In the late fall as the weather alternated between 40°F and 70°F overnight, bumblebees sometimes got caught by cold temperatures and spent the night on the zinnia flowers in my garden. They would crouch around the inner section of the flower, so still that I could pet them very gently, with just once one finger. They were soft, just as I hoped, not the bristly feeling that wooly bear (Isabella tiger moth or Pyrrharctia isabella) caterpillars have. Some spent two nights on the flowers. Once when we had a downpour I cut the flower and put it inside a jar tipped to keep the rain out. I just didn’t like to see the bee exposed to the cold rain. The following day was sunny and the bee departed.  
The bee behavior observation is one way to mark the temperature and other changes as the seasons change. What interesting natural events have you noticed that occur each year in your area or schoolyard? Young children notice some changes but others happen little by little and are not noted. Documenting the gradual changes of leave color changes or leaf drop, windy-ness or cloud cover can bring these changes to children’s attention.
The January 2012 Early Years column in Science and Children describes many different ways young children can collect data about weather and changes in the weather. Take a look at the weather data collection templates (NSTA Connections) and see if they could be used in your classroom. I’ve found that some children are very interested in recording data such as the amount of water collected in a rain gauge over night, and others are not. But if the “Weather Watcher” is added to the classroom job list, every child wants a turn.
Young children might use a thermometer that shows the temperature in terms of what clothing people are likely to wear. Kindergarteners may be ready to record temperature as where the “top of the red line” is located in groups of ten: 0-10, 10-20, 20-30, and so on. Children who are reading numerals can record temperature on a class graph, to compare over a long period of time.
Weather data collection from snow depth or rain gauges and, and thermometers on the playground or outside a window, can be offered to any who are interested. Their data can be brought to a group discussion, or simply posted on the wall to be discussed as the occasion presents itself. I hope none of the weather your children experience is dangerous but teachers must be ready to help children understand and face difficulties in life, including damaging weather. Here are some resources to learn more for such situations:
Crisis and Disaster Resources for Caregivers, a compiled list fromChild Care Aware® of America, lists resources from National Association of School Psychologists, The National Child Traumatic Stress Network and others.
Helping Children Cope with Natural Disasters by Karen Stephens from ChildCareExchange.
Do you have a favorite book about children noticing weather phenomena? I like the classics, Gilberto and the Wind by Marie Hall Ets, and The Snowy Day by Ezra Jack Keats, and newer works; Who Likes the Wind by Etta Kaner and illustrated by Marie Lafrance (2006, Kids Can Press), and Millions of Snowflakes by Mary McKenna Siddals and illustrated by Elizabeth Sayles (1998, Houghton Mifflin).

I attended an event where we cleaned out the science warehouse for our school system. I got a lot of great stuff for my elementary science classes, including a box of rock and mineral samples that have little stickers with letters or numbers. I’m sure at some point there was a key that told what these meant, but it is long gone. Do you have any suggestions about how I can identify these samples?
—Suzanne, Charlotte North Carolina
Teachers always are on the look for classroom resources, especially if they’re free! You’re experiencing one of the drawbacks of free stuff with your keyless rock collection. You could take the samples to your high school earth science teacher, a natural history museum, or college geology department for assistance. But I’m seeing this as a learning opportunity for both you and your students.
Instead of getting someone to label them for the students, how about identifying them with your students? Your students may rush for the field guides right away, but I had an experience that showed the value of careful observation and discussion. A few years ago I was working on a project at the Cornell Lab of Ornithology and we went on an early morning bird watch with one of the ornithologists (who was from Europe). He mentioned that when American birders see a new species, they immediately start looking at the field guide to identify it. He said that in Europe, they spend a few minutes writing down or describing the characteristics to each other – for example, the bird is smaller than a robin and has white wing bars, a yellow throat and rump, and a white eye ring. Then they match their observations to the guide. The discussion and analysis are essential to a good identification.

So with this project, since you’re focusing on processes rather than rocks per se, you might want to give each team two to three rocks and a hand lens and have them record the characteristics (color, texture, etc.) on notepaper or a chart before you give them guide books or a dichotomous key. This way they’re observing and discussing first (just as we learned on the bird walk), rather than fretting over the “right” answer or trying to be the first to finish.
It might be interesting to then have the groups who looked at a given sample compare their notes. As you aggregate the data for each sample, look for and discuss the similarities and differences in the students’ observations. “What did you observe about Sample #1?”
Based on my personal experience, make sure the stickers are firmly attached to the samples and take a photo of each before the activity. You might have a few jokesters who switch the labels!
It would be interesting to find out how students react to the fact that you do not have the “correct” answers but are part of the research team. I hope that you’ll let us know the results of your project.
I’ve created a resource collection with a sample page for notes and NSTA journal articles on rocks and rock collections.
 
Photo: http://www.flickr.com/photos/k-bot/3433222700/sizes/l/in/photostream/

It’s not hard to get students interested in earth science. They can  see the value of learning about the weather and climate, soil, water, tides, volcanoes, earthquakes. The featured articles this month highlight the  processes that are all around us and affect our everyday lives.

The hands-on activities described in Explorations of Our Frozen Planet focuses on the cryosphere (parts of the Earth system where temperatures are below -17.7C for at least part of the year. [SciLinks: Snowflakes, Glaciers, Polar Climates]

Understanding Earth’s Albedo Effect has suggestions for a hands-on lesson to study the concept. The photographs and examples of student work are very helpful. [SciLinks: Albedo]

The baking soda/vinegar demo is fine to study chemical reactions, but not accurate for volcanoes! Using a Desktop Explosive Volcano Model to Explore Eruptions provide a better way to model how eruptions occur and how materials are ejected. The authors include references and comparisons to volcanic activity in Hawaii (and since I’m traveling there next month I was eager to read this!). [SciLinks: Volcanic Eruptions, Volcanoes, Volcanic Zones]

Making Sense of Dinosaur Tracks simulates the work of paleontologists in examining a fossil site. The authors include many suggestions and graphic organizers to help students focus their observations and inferences. [SciLinks: Comparing Dinosaurs, Dinosaur Extinction]

Investigating the Mercalli Intensity Scale Through “Lived Experience” shows students how to supplement the Richter scale with additional observations about the physical destruction of an earthquake. The article includes a version of the Mercalli intensity scale students can use in simulations. [SciLinks: Earthquake Measurement, What is an Earthquake?]

Who hasn’t spent time gazing at clouds? Clear Skies Ahead takes cloud-gazing a little further with suggestions for helping students learn how to identify clouds using their characteristics. [SciLinks: Clouds] You might also be interested in the citizen science S’COOL project, in which students report their cloud observations to NASA.

Some students seem to be able to see the big picture and the interrelationships between events. Connecting Earth Systems has ideas to help students develop a holistic understanding of the earth systems. The graphic organizer and guiding questions would be very helpful.

Investigating Future Climate Scenarios has a scenario in which students examine data related to sea level rise. With the recent severe storms, this is a relevant topic. [SciLinks: Sea Level Change]

Using Cookie Dough to Teach the Layers shows an engaging activity for students to create a model. [SciLinks: Layers of the Earth]

Check out the Connections for this issue (December 2012). Even if the article does not quite fit with your lesson agenda, this resource has ideas for handouts, background information sheets, data sheets, rubrics, etc.

Students need opportunities to apply what they are learning to new situations and to experience what scientists actually do. But it’s a challenge to design and conduct authentic activities with real-life applications. Fortunately, many institutions and organizations have set up citizen-science or community-based research projects in which students and teachers can participate. It’s a win-win scenario—the sponsor gets additional observers and data-collectors on the task, and the students get experiences that can extend into careers or lifelong learning.
As an advocate for (and participant in) citizen science projects, I’m excited about NSTA’s partnership with SciStarters—you may have seen the promotion on the Science Teacher site. SciStarters is a searchable collection of community-based and citizen-science projects–regional, national, and international. There are projects appropriate for all grade levels and on a variety of topics.
Citizen Scientists: Investigating Science in the Community describes several examples of citizen science and provides links to the project sites. The authors point out that many of these projects have components specifically geared to the classroom, and the teacher’s role is help make the connections between the project activities and the curriculum learning goals. These types of projects were also described in Community-Based Science, the November 2012 issue of NSTA’s Science Scope.

In the Communities, Cameras, and Conservation, students monitor remote cameras and analyze data to help with a study of mountain lions in Colorado. In addition to learning about patterns of animal behavior, the students also had experiences in using GPS and GIS technology. The authors include a summary of data (and photograns) from several participating schools. OK, most of us don’t have mountain lions to study, but the article has a link to learn more about starting a CCC project in a location near you.
Many citizen science projects are already set up for your participation. Flying Into Inquiry has information about several bird studies, including Project Feederwatch and eBird.   In these projects students collect and submit observation data, but they also have access to databases to study bird population trends—sample maps and graphs are included. And as noted in Citizen Science in Your Own Backyard, entomology can be another project focus in the classroom or a summer learning experience.  [SciLinks: Birds, Insects, Aquatic Entomology]
In addition to collecting and sharing data, people engaging in “citizen science” can also participate in outreach projects and community action. Project Citizen describes an interdisciplinary way for student to identify and investigate topics of interest in their communities. The authors describe a six-step process and provide examples of topics.
Be Your Own Groundhog is another example of using existing data in an investigation. The author challenges students to examine longitudinal data (physical and biological) and predict when spring will “spring.” This phenology lesson could be connection to graphing in math classes, too. [SciLinks: Reasons for the Seasons]
Don’t forget to look at the Connections  for this issue (December 2012), which includes links to the studies cited in the research article. These Connections also have ideas for handouts, background information sheets, data sheets, rubrics, etc.

“I found these two rocks in the sandbox and I think they’re from a volcano.” Children like to share their special found objects and talk about where they came from and what they might be. “I think this is a dead spider or a something else.” They like the way the rock feels, or the ambiguity of shape of the possible spider. Describing these found objects can be a challenge if the child does not have any experience with volcanoes or spiders. Children need outdoor experiences on and with natural materials to become familiar with which materials occur naturally and which are made by people from those natural materials. They need to observe many living organisms to be able to recognize the characteristic shape of a spider. If you don’t live near a volcano the child might not be able to compare the found rocks with volcanic rocks. The origin of the rocks might never be known for sure but wondering about where rocks come from could be supported by going on a walk to look for rocks, or taking a field trip to a naturally rocky place. (Visit the “Salt the Sandbox” site for great tips on finding rocks in a suburb without natural outcrops of rock.)
Even older elementary students have much to learn about materials and where they come from. In a column in the December 2012 Science and Children, “Science Shorts: Is Concrete a Rock?”, Katie Brkich writes about using place-based education, which begins teaching with the local environment, to teach students  how to tell if materials occur naturally or are artificial or altered by humans. Students in grade 4 used “Is It a Rock?”, a probe from Uncovering Student Ideas in Science Volume 2, that asks students to explain their thinking, and tell what “rule” or reasoning they used to decide if an object is a rock or not.
Children in preK to grade 2 are also able to explain their thinking. When children come to me asking, “What is this?” about an unknown object, I often ask them, “What could it be?” This prompts them to share their observations and past experiences to explain their ideas. The explanations are often incomplete. When I hear that the gray melange stones (found in our volcano-free region) might be from a volcano, I see no point in bursting the child’s bubble by saying, “I doubt it.” (I also don’t say I agree that it could be from a volcano.) Instead I can use the excitement about finding an interesting rock to encourage the child to look closely at other rocks and become familiar with the variety of textures, colors, and luster of local and rock. We might start a Found Rock Collection and use children’s developing literacy skills to label their finds.
Some programs provide a variety of natural materials for students to use in making “projects” (art creations of any kind). In the December 2012 Science and Children Early Years column I write about making a Materials Museum where children write, dictate and draw on a card to describe materials they find or bring from home, or those you provide because you think they are important for the children to explore. Later, after the materials are explored, described and displayed, they can be used for art creations.

When I was a child, one of my favorite toys was a set of wooden blocks, in a variety of shapes and sizes. We would play for hours, sometimes building models of structures and other times experimenting with designs and patterns. We also had Lincoln Logs and Tinkertoys, and we realized that different materials could be used to make different things. Fast forward to today, where in addition to “building,” the articles in this issue also discuss the mental processing that young builders learn and use as they manipulate a variety of materials in 3-D and in real time.
For example, Bridges and Skyscrapers has a lesson plan for building and testing these structures in the classroom, along with suggested trade books on the topic. [SciLinks: Bridge Structures, Science of Bridges] And the author of Just Right describes a challenge in which students explore and test properties of materials and build model houses based on what they learned about the materials (and I enjoyed reading how the teacher used the story of the Three Little Pigs as an introduction! [SciLinks: Engineering Structures]
Young children are fascinated by putting things together and taking them apart. The authors of Family Style Engineering describe how teachers can support these beginning engineers in the classroom and also through hosting a family engineering event. (Their ideas could certainly be adapted for middle level students.) It’s No Problem to Invent a Solution shows how we can tap into the creativity of young children as they create their own inventions [SciLinks: Inventions/Inventors]

Understanding the nature of materials is another component of the building process, and several articles have ideas for helping students explore the characteristics of common materials. With young children, you could start with a Please Touch Museum (with suggestions for doing so). In the investigations described in Limestone or Wax?, students study and identify the properties of common materials (there are graphics showing the students’ comparison chart) and then take on a design challenge. Is Concrete a Rock? includes a lesson plan to probe students’ misunderstandings and help them differentiate between natural materials and those made by humans. My grandfather was a steel worker and the bus I rode to school passed a mill every day, so we didn’t have to ask How Is Steel Made? But since most steel is now made overseas, students (and teachers) may find useful background information in this article. [SciLinks: Metals, Properties of Metals, Rocks, Rock Cycle]
The Great Build a Buoy Challenge presents a design project for students to build a floating structure. Even if you don’t live near a body of water, this challenge has opportunities for students to explore materials, buoyancy, hands-on building, and problem-solving. [SciLinks: Buoyancy, and if your students want more on what buoys are used for, check out NOAA’s National Data Buoy Center. Select an area from the menu on the right of the map for a closeup of the buoys in that area.]
The author of The Science of Safety notes that “science begins with a question to answer, whereas engineering begins with a problem to be solved.” She then describes how she took a science unit on force and motion and extended it with a problem-solving activity in which students apply their knowledge to design safety features for “cars” they made. The photos of the students and their cars’ passengers are priceless! [SciLinks: Forces]  And now, S&C readers can learn from Ken Roy, NSTA’s Chief Science Safety Compliance Consultant. His initial column, Modeling Safely, looks at types of modeling clay and their appropriateness for classroom activities.
Many of these articles have extensive resources to share, so check out the Connections for this issue (December 2012). Even if the article does not quite fit with your lesson agenda, there are ideas for handouts, background information sheets, data sheets, rubrics, and other resources.
 

I was asked if I would take a student teacher. This would be my first one. What should I consider in making the decision?
—Mark, Queens, New York
Your administrator must feel confident in your expertise to ask you to take on this responsibility. Working with the next generation of teachers is part of being a professional and is worth considering. You also posed this question on the NSTA email list and I’ve incorporated some of those responses here.
Helping someone else learn the ins and outs of teaching and learning can be an effective and rewarding professional development activity for you. You have the chance to collaborate with the preservice teacher on a daily basis and to interact with her/her program supervisor. You have the opportunity to share your own learning experiences as a teacher.

• As much as student teachers got ideas from me, I got ideas from them! It helped me be reflective on what I normally do in the classroom by watching the student teacher work. [Wendell]
• The intern in your classroom counts on you for guidance and feedback and needs you to analyze what he or she did whenever the unsuccessful experience occurs. It’s a lot of work and not always a pleasant one when you need to deconstruct his/her mistakes. [Elisa]

However, teachers who deal with standardized tests (and  may have their own performance partially evaluated based on those results)may be reluctant to turn over classes to someone who may not cover the tested topics in a timely manner. The preservice teacher may have a different personality and philosophy than you, and it could be difficult for your students to adapt.

• It was difficult at times to “let go” of my classes, and watch some of the discipline I had established erode a bit. [Shaun]
• You’ll be putting in more time prepping before school and processing what happened after school with your student teacher. Then there’s the possibility of getting a student teacher who’s not very good, for one reason or another, or your personalities clash. If this becomes the case, the situation can be a hassle for you. Your curricular timeline will probably have to be modified to accommodate for the student teacher’s lack of experience. [Wendell]

Do some fact-finding before you make a decision, and ask questions such as–

Ask about the content and experiences of the methods course(s) the preservice teacher has taken and if these courses included safety guidelines. Will the preservice teacher take all your classes or just a few (and when)? What will be your role in evaluating the preservice teacher and what are the criteria? Ask ahead of time for the “manual” to get a feel for the program’s expectations and requirements. Is there an escape clause if it’s clear that the preservice teacher is not going to be successful?

• Can you interview potential student teachers before final approval of the assignment is made, to make sure personalities and educational philosophies are a good fit? [Shaun]
• Ask the student teacher’s program to be very clear on your role. Some schools want the “master teacher” to be absent from the room, while some want her/him to be present at all times. In addition, check with your school/district to see what regulations they have. [Lee]
• Will the student teacher design his or her own units and lessons, use materials and formats from their program, or implement your district adopted activities and formats? [Linda]

The program may offer you a modest stipend and the experience can enhance your own resume. If the preservice teacher eventually takes on your entire schedule, you may have time to work on curriculum design or other projects. Some final thoughts from the email lists:

• I think the most important thing you can do for student teachers would be to require them to analyze the effectiveness of their own instruction, reflecting upon the lessons (perhaps via video), and have them articulate the reasons for the instructional choices they made. [Jennifer]
• Teachers should only accept the mentor role if they are confident, able to remain professional, are flexible, and are capable of interacting positively with people of diverse backgrounds. [Elizabeth]

 
Photo: http://www.flickr.com/photos/xevivarela/4610711363/sizes/o/in/photostream/

Festive holidays and winter weather can be disruptive for the classroom schedule at this time of year but can also provide inspiration for appealing science activities. Take advantage of cooking themes to teach some chemistry or take a cue from weather reports to delve into a lesson about frost. The December 2012 issue of NSTA’s Book Beat  features ideas to help you connect December themes with science lessons for students who might already be thinking of winter break and holiday fun. The free lessons this month include “Exploding Corn” from Sarah Young’s Gourmet Lab: The Scientific Principles Behind Your Favorite Foods, in which grades 6–12 students study how water can change state in the popping of corn. Also included in the downloadable lessons is “Chemical Change Café” from Karen Ansberry and Emily Morgan’s Picture-Perfect Science Lessons, Revised 2nd Edition, which will help your grades 3–6 students explore the differences between a variety of changes in states of matter as well as the chemical change of cooking pancakes. Another handy free resource is the activity “Let’s Make Frost” from Project Earth Science Meteorology, Revised 2nd Edition, in which grades 5–10 students relate the formation of crystals to the phase change from vapor to solid. If you’d like additional tips for fitting in more science on pre-holiday school days, this issue of Book Beat also offers “Making the Most of ‘Lost Days’” from The Science Teacher’s February 2011 issue. Science is the subject for all seasons, but tying winter and holiday themes into December class time can also add an element of fun to learning.